The theme of sending is well-established as central in the Lukan narrative. As François Bovon succinctly summarizes,

The history of God, if we dare express it in this way, is marked by the Father’s faithfulness to send messengers whose fates resemble one another…. Jesus fits into this series of envoys, and the apostles continue in this movement.¹François Bovon, Luke the Theologian: Fifty-Five Years of Research, 2nd rev. ed. (Baylor University Press, 2006), 224.

Likewise, James Edwards observes that in Luke-Acts, “the fulfilment of salvation history is a history of divine sending.”²James R. Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, PNTC (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 2015), 186. Accordingly, numerous studies have observed the importance of the language of sending in Luke-Acts, particularly the verb ἀποστέλλω, in the initiation, movement, and continuation of God’s divine mission.³Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 186; Darrell L. Bock, A Theology of Luke and Acts, Biblical Theology of the New Testament (Zondervan Academic, 2012), 812; Jan van ’t Spijker, “God’s Acts in Lukan-Acts: God’s Active Involvement in the Execution of the Plan of Salvation,” Skriflig 58.1 (2024): 1–7; John T. Squires, The Plan of God in Luke-Acts, SNTSMS 76 (Cambridge University Press, 1993), 27. Few, however, have systematically studied sending as a verbal thread in Luke-Acts, a gap that this paper seeks to address.

A verbal thread or Leitwort, according to Robert Alter’s translation of Martin Buber, is

a word or a word-root that recurs significantly in a text, in a continuum of texts, or in a configuration of texts: by following these repetitions, one is able to decipher or grasp a meaning of the text, or at any rate, the meaning will be revealed more strikingly. The repetition, as we have said, need not be merely of the word itself but also for the word-root.⁴Robert Alter explains how speech and the narrator’s statements are used to reveal character. For more details, see Robert Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative, rev. ed. (Basic Books, 2011), 116–17; Steve Walton, “Jesus, Present and/or Absent? The Presence and Presentation of Jesus as a Character in the Book of Acts,” in Characters and Characterization in Luke-Acts, ed. Frank E. Dicken and Julia A. Snyder, LNTS 548 (T&T Clark, 2018), 125.

The narrative impact of a verbal thread, explains Alter, is thematic development and establishment of connections between seemingly disparate episodes.⁵Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative, 118; James L Resseguie, Narrative Criticism of the New Testament: An Introduction (: Baker Academic, 2005), 41. Robert Tannehill similarly notes that the repetition of keywords and phrases are clear literary signals that bind the author’s message to certain controlling images in the text.⁶Robert C. Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts: A Literary Interpretation (Fortress, 1991), 1:3.

In this paper, the study of the sending verbal thread is based on tracing Luke’s use of the sending word group, comprising of four words or word-roots: ἀποστέλλω (and cognates), πέμπω (and cognates), ἐκβάλλω, and ἀπολύω.⁷The other cognates of ἐκβάλλω and ἀπολύω do not significantly include “sending” within their semantic range. All four words/word-roots have the meaning of “sending” within their semantic ranges⁸BDAG, s.vv. “ἀποστέλλω,” “πέμπω,” “ἐκβάλλω,” “ἀπολύω”; The Brill Dictionary of Ancient Greek, s.vv. “ἀποστέλλω,” “πέμπω,” “ἐκβάλλω,” “ἀπολύω”; NIDNTTE, s.vv. “ἀποστέλλω,” “πέμπω,” “ἐκβάλλω,” “ἀπολύω.” and are used interchangeably by Luke to describe the action of sending.⁹For example, Luke 7:3–6, 7:19–20, 10:2–3, 20:10–13; Acts 10:5–20, 11:29–30, 13:3–4, 15:22–27, 33. After making the case for the sending verbal thread in Luke-Acts, the thread will be traced through the narrative before exegetical implications are discussed.

1. Making the Case for the Sending Verbal Thread

Luke stands out from the other Gospel writers in his strategic usage of the sending word group throughout his narrative, particularly ἀποστέλλω and its cognates.¹⁰The frequency of Luke’s usage of the sending word group does not stand out significantly in comparison with the other gospel writers: 4.31 times per 1000 words in Luke’s gospel, compared to 4.09, 5.4, and 4.61 in Matthew, Mark, and John, respectively. The frequency in Acts is markedly higher at 6.5, but it is driven mostly by the use of ἀπόστολος. The sending verbal thread in Luke-Acts is evidenced in Luke’s strategic usage of the word group in characterisation and narrative structure.

The first way Luke strategically uses the sending word group is in characterisation.¹¹Alter, The Art of Biblical Narrative, 116–17. Joel Green, in his narrative analysis of Luke-Acts, identifies the narrative’s key characters who are used by God to accomplish his aim of bringing salvation to all people. The aim is anticipated by God’s messengers, made possible by the birth and growth of John and Jesus, and made probable through the preparatory mission of John and the life, death, and exaltation of Jesus. Jesus subsequently commissions and promises the empowering of his followers by the Holy Spirit to extend the message to all people. The subsequent story in Acts narrates the realization of God’s purposes, with a particular focus on Paul as God directs the Christian mission towards an egalitarian community composed of Jews, Samaritans, and Gentiles.¹²Joel B. Green, The Gospel of Luke, NICNT (Eerdmans, 1997), 8. Each of the main characters identified above is described by Luke as being sent (ἀποστέλλω) by God, as shown in the table below.¹³Much of the material cited is uniquely Lukan, with the exceptions of Luke 6:13 and 9:2 (Matthew 10:1–5 and Mark 3:14 and 6:7), and Luke 7:27 (Matthew 11:10 and Mark 1:2–3).

Character	Description
God’s messenger Gabriel	• Declares to Zechariah and Mary that he has been sent by/from God (Luke 1:19, 26).14The twofold sending of the messenger Gabriel is consistent with Luke placing the birth narratives of John and Jesus in parallel with each other. Philip L. Shuler, “The Rhetorical Character of Luke 1–2,” in Literary Studies in Luke-Acts: Essays in Honour of Joseph B. Tyson, ed. Thomas E. Phillips and Richard P. Thompson (Mercer University Press, 1998), 188.
God’s messenger John the Baptist	• Described as being God’s messenger sent to prepare the way (Luke 7:27).
Jesus	• Describes himself as being sent by God (Luke 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16). • Described by Peter as one sent by God (Acts 3:20, 26)
Holy Spirit	• Promised by Jesus to be sent (Luke 24:48–49)
Followers / Apostles	• Jesus selects followers to be his “sent-out ones” (ἀπόστολοι) (Luke 6:13), whom he will in turn send out (9:2; 10:1, 3; 11:49). • The leaders of the apostles are sent. Peter and John are sent by the apostles to Samaria (Acts 8:14). Paul and various companions are sent out to various places (Acts 9:30; 11:29–30; 13:3–4; 15:2, 22–27; 17:10, 14; 22:21; 25:21–27; 26:17). • Apostles are not the only ones sent by God. For example, Ananias is sent by God to Paul (Acts 9:17), while two servants and a soldier are sent by God to Joppa (Acts 10:1–11:18).

 

In addition to the main characters in the narrative, the characters described in the speeches in Luke-Acts are also frequently characterized as having been sent by God. Speeches are a prominent narrative device in Luke-Acts, used by Luke to reflect his perspective and enhance narrative unity.¹⁵Luke Timothy Johnson, Luke, Sacra Pagina (Liturgical Press, 1991), 13; Darrell L. Bock, Acts, BECNT (Baker Academic, 2007), 20–21; Douglas S. Huffman, The Story of Jesus Continues: A Survey of the Acts of the Apostles (Zondervan Academic, 2025), 64. In Jesus’s first Galilean ministry speech, he compares himself with Elijah, who was sent (πέμπω) by God (Luke 4:18, 26, 43).¹⁶As mentioned above, Jesus also describes John as being sent (ἀποστέλλω) in his second Galilean speech (Luke 7:27). In Peter’s temple sermon, used by Luke to “make his audience certain of the proper interpretation of the foundational events,”¹⁷Ben Witherington III, The Acts of the Apostles: A Socio-Rhetorical Commentary (Eerdmans, 1998), 177. Jesus is again described as having been sent (ἀποστέλλω) by God (Acts 3:20, 26). Stephen’s speech, the longest in the book of Acts, describes Moses as having been sent (ἀποστέλλω) by God (7:34, 35, 39; cf. Exod 3:10).

The second way Luke strategically uses the sending word group is at the narrative seams of Luke and Acts. In Luke’s gospel, Luke forms an inclusio by using ἀποστέλλω at the Gospel’s opening and closing (Luke 1:19 and 24:49).¹⁸Resseguie, Narrative Criticism of the New Testament, 57; John Nolland, Luke 18:35–24:53, , WBC 35C (Zondervan, 1993), 1220. Luke also uses sending terminology at the beginning of each main section of the Gospel as part of his pattern of providing “a particular direction and interpretation to the narration”¹⁹François Bovon, A Commentary on the Gospel of Luke 1:1–9:50, ed. Helmut Koester, trans. Christine M. Thomas, Hermenia (Fortress, 2002), 3. (see table below). While most of the passages have parallels in the other Gospels, Luke differs from the other evangelists by placing the material and sending terminology at the seams of the Gospel narrative.

Section20Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke; Bock, A Theology of Luke and Acts; Craig L. Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey, 2nd ed. (Broadman & Holman, 2009); Green, The Gospel of Luke; Darrell L. Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, BECNT (Baker, 1994); I. Howard Marshall, The Gospel of Luke, NIGTC (Eerdmans, 1978).	Verse
Anticipation and preparation for Jesus (1:1–4:13)	And the angel (ἄγγελος) answered him, “I am Gabriel. I stand in the presence of God, and I was sent (ἀποστέλλω) to speak to you and to bring you this good news. (Luke 1:19) In the sixth month the angel (ἄγγελος) Gabriel was sent (ἀποστέλλω) from God to a city of Galilee named Nazareth. (Luke 1:26)
Revelation of Jesus (4:14–9:50)	He has sent (ἀποστέλλω) me to proclaim liberty to the captives and recovering of sight to the blind, to set at liberty those who are oppressed. (Luke 4:18b)
Following Jesus on the way to Jerusalem (9:51–19:48)21Numerous commentators place the structural break at Luke 19:44 or even 19:28. However, regardless of the exact placement of the structural break, the broad themes of each section still stand. For example, David E. Garland, Luke, ZECNT (Zondervan, 2011); Leon Morris, Luke, Rev. ed., TNTC (Inter-Varsity Press, 1988); Bovon, A Commentary on the Gospel of Luke 1:1–9:50.	And he sent (ἀποστέλλω) messengers (ἄγγελος) ahead of him, who went and entered a village of the Samaritans, to make preparations for him. (Luke 9:52)22Luke 9:51–52, widely seen as opening the second half of Luke’s narrative, contains the same descriptions of the sending of messengers (ἄγγελος).
The rejection, suffering, death, and exaltation of Jesus (20:1–24:53)	When the time came, he sent (ἀποστέλλω) a servant to the tenants, so that they would give him some of the fruit of the vineyard. But the tenants beat him and sent him away (ἐξαποστέλλω) empty-handed. And he sent (πέμπω) another servant. But they also beat and treated him shamefully, and sent him away (ἐξαποστέλλω) empty-handed. And he sent (πέμπω) yet a third. This one also they wounded and cast out (ἐκβάλλω). Then the owner of the vineyard said, “What shall I do? I will send (πέμπω) my beloved son; perhaps they will respect him.” (Luke 20:10–13) And behold, I am sending (ἀποστέλλω) the promise of my Father upon you. (Luke 24:48–49)

 

Luke 4:18 warrants further comment as it forms the centrepiece of Luke 4:16–30, which in turn is programmatic for the interpretation of Luke-Acts as a whole.²³F. Neirynck, “Luke 4,16–30 and the Unity of Luke-Acts,” in The Unity of Luke-Acts, ed. J. Verheyden, BETL 142 (Peeters, 1999), 357; John Nolland, Luke 1–9:20, WBC 35A (Zondervan, 1989), 195. Compared with its parallels in Mark 6:1–6 and Matthew 13:54–58, Luke significantly repositions and expands the material in accordance with the programmatic significance he accords it in the narrative.²⁴Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 134. In citing Isaiah 61:1–2, Jesus is positioned as Israel’s Spirit-filled redeemer, bringing God’s new age of salvation.²⁵Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 136; Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, 407. John Nolland notes the significance of the Isaiah 61 figure in not merely heralding but bringing salvation, an expectation true in the Isaianic context, carried on in the tradition of Palestinian Judaism, and underscored by Luke in the insertion of Isaiah 58:6.²⁶Nolland, Luke 1–9:20, 196. Isaiah’s anticipation of the Gentile mission will be made more explicit later on in the narrative (Acts 13:47).²⁷Brian A. Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses: Theology for God’s Church Serving in God’s Mission (Crossway, 2024), 33.

By retaining the essential structure of the Isaiah passage in Luke 4:18, Luke frames the redeemer’s ministry in terms of being “anointed” and “sent,”²⁸Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 136. as shown in the following diagram,

The Spirit of the Lord is upon me,
    because he has anointed me
        to proclaim good news to the poor.²⁹Nolland suggests that “to proclaim good news to the poor” should instead be linked with the following “he has sent me.” Nolland, Luke 1–9:20, 191.
He has sent me
    to proclaim
        liberty to the captives and
        recovering of sight to the blind,
    to set at liberty those who are oppressed,
    to proclaim the year of the Lord’s favor.

The description of Jesus being sent, reiterated in Luke 4:43, emphasizes the biblical perspective of Jesus as the divine missionary commissioned by God the Father.³⁰Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, 408; Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 51. The infinitives modifying the verb “sent” explicate the details of Jesus’s mission as the Isaianic Spirit-filled redeemer, thus providing a crucial interpretive lens for the reader to understand the mission of Jesus and his disciples for the rest of the narrative. In the Lukan narrative, Jesus’s mission will have a special emphasis on proclaiming good news to the poor (Luke 14:13, 16:20, 21:3) and outsiders ( 5:12–16, 27–32; 7:36–50; 8:1–3), as well as bringing physical and spiritual healing to the blind (7:21–22; 18:35; Acts 13:11).³¹Green, The Gospel of Luke, 211; Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, 409. Luke 4:25–27 develops this emphasis by positioning Jesus as the typological counterpart to Elijah and Elisha (alluding specifically to their roles as agents of healing to outsiders in 1 Kgs 17:8–24 and 2 Kgs 5:1–19).³²Green, The Gospel of Luke, 217; Mark Strauss, The Davidic Messiah in Luke-Acts, JSNTSup 110 (Sheffield Academic Press, 1995), 223; Marshall, The Gospel of Luke, 178. This is further developed in Luke 7:1–17 through allusions to the same passages in 1 and 2 Kings,³³John Shelton, “The Healing of Naaman (2 Kings 5:1–19) as a Central Component for the Healing of the Centurion’s Slave (Luke 7:1–10),” in The Elijah-Elisha Narrative in the Composition of Luke, ed. John S. Kloppenborg and J. Verheyden, LNTS (T&T Clark, 2004); Thomas L Brodie, “Towards Unravelling Luke’s Use of the Old Testament: Luke 7.11–17 as an Imitatio of 1 Kings 17.17–24,” NTS 32 (1986): 247–67; Craig A. Evans, “Luke’s Use of the Elijah/Elisha Narratives and the Ethic of Election,” JBL 106 (1987): 75; David W. Pao and Ekhard J. Schnabel, “Luke,” in Commentary on the New Testament Use of the Old Testament, ed. G. K. Beale and D. A. Carson (Baker Academic, 2007), 289–99. and referenced by Jesus in Luke 7:22 when asked by John’s disciples about the veracity of his ministry. Critically, Luke 4:18 sets the stage to understand the ministry of Jesus’s disciples as well. In continuation of Jesus’s Spirit-empowered ministry, the disciples will also be sent to proclaim and heal (9:2; 24:47; Acts 2:38; 8:5; 10:42; 13:38; 26:18) beyond Jerusalem to all outsiders at the very ends of the earth (2:8; 28:31).³⁴Huffman, The Story of Jesus Continues: A Survey of the Acts of the Apostles, xxi–xxii. Commenting on the end of Acts, Patrick Schreiner notes the multiple intertextual links between Acts 28:28 and Luke 3:4–6, thus “bringing the Lukan Isaianic fulfillment narrative full circle.”³⁵Patrick Schreiner, Acts, CSC (Holman, 2022), 673.

Turning to the book of Acts, similar to Luke’s gospel, sending is prominent in the opening and closing of the narrative. Luke opens Acts by picking up on Jesus’s promise in Luke 24:48–49 to send the Holy Spirit (Acts 1:4, 8),³⁶Having referenced the gospel as the “first book” in Acts 1:1, Luke picks up on Luke 24:48–49’s lexical trifecta of promise (ἐπαγγελία), power (δύναμις), and witness (μάρτυς). thus framing the events of Acts as being driven by the power of the Spirit: God has sent his Spirit to send out his witnesses to the ends of the earth.³⁷John B. Polhill, Acts, NAC (Broadman, 1992), 65; Craig S Keener, “The Spirit and the Mission of the Church in Acts 1–2,” JETS 62 (2019): 25–45. Luke uses the sending word group in the book’s closing too, underscoring the Spirit’s sending role and emphasising God’s ultimate agency in the movement of the gospel through the use of the divine passive (28:28).³⁸Squires, The Plan of God in Luke-Acts. Sending terminology is also prominent at the narrative seams, as shown in the table below:

Section39Polhill, Acts, 72; Bock, A Theology of Luke and Acts, 65; Luke Timothy Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, SP 5 (Liturgical, 1992), 10; Brian J. Tabb, “Sharing the Servant’s Mission: Isaiah 49:6 in Luke-Acts,” JETS 65 (2022): 509–22.	Verse
Jerusalem (Acts 1–7)	You are witnesses of these things. And behold, I am sending (ἀποστέλλω) the promise of my Father upon you. But stay in the city until you are clothed with power from on high.” (Luke 24:48–49) And while staying with them he ordered them not to depart from Jerusalem, but to wait for the promise of the Father…. “But you will receive power when the Holy Spirit has come upon you, and you will be my witnesses in Jerusalem and in all Judea and Samaria, and to the end of the earth.” (Acts 1:4, 8)
Judea and Samaria (Acts 8–12)	Now when the apostles at Jerusalem heard that Samaria had received the word of God, they sent (ἀποστέλλω) to them Peter and John (Acts 8:14).
To the ends of the earth (Acts 13–28)	Then after fasting and praying they laid their hands on them and sent (ἀπολύω) them off. So, being sent out (ἐκπέμπω) by the Holy Spirit, they went down to Seleucia, and from there they sailed to Cyprus (Acts 13:3–4). Therefore let it be known to you that this salvation of God has been sent (ἀποστέλλω) to the Gentiles; they will listen (Acts 28:28).

 

In addition to the abovementioned narrative seams, Luke employs sending language at three key turning points in the Acts narrative, each of which is described by F. F. Bruce as “epoch-making” events.⁴⁰F. F. Bruce, The Book of Acts, revised ed., NICNT (Eerdmans, 1988), 282. While the narrative seams of Acts mark the geographical movement of the gospel to the Gentiles, these three turning points facilitate the movement of the gospel. Each of the turning points exhibits a high frequency of the sending word group,⁴¹The sending word group appears at a frequency of 7.1, 13.2, and 25.0 times per 1000 words in Acts 9:1–31, 10:1–11:30, and 15:1–35 respectively. For reference, the average frequency across the whole book of Acts is 6.50 times per 1000 words. enhancing the sending verbal thread and underscoring God’s providential hand behind the gospel movement.⁴²Stephen J. Strauss, “The Purpose of Acts and the Mission of God,” BSac 169 (2012): 443–64.

The first turning point is Saul’s conversion in Acts 9:1–31. Saul’s conversion in Acts 9:1–31 is significant as his ministry will be the focus of Acts 13–28.⁴³Polhill, Acts, 72; Bock, A Theology of Luke and Acts, 65; Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, 10. Having been introduced as one approving Stephen’s execution (8:1), Saul’s conversion and preparation for mission is woven throughout Acts 9–12. Sending language is prominent in Saul’s conversion. The episode hinges on Ananias’s response to God’s command to send (ἀποστέλλω) him to Paul, despite his reservations (9:11, 17). Paul is subsequently sent (ἐξαποστέλλω) to Tarsus (9:30). In Paul’s subsequent ministry, he will recognize that the message of salvation he preaches was first sent (ἐξαποστέλλω) to him (13:26). Paul will also be repeatedly described (by himself and others) as one sent (ἐκπέμπω, ἐξαποστέλλω, ἀποστέλλω, ἀπολύω) by God to spearhead gospel proclamation to the Gentiles (13:3, 4; 22:21; 26:17; 28:28).

The second turning point is the account of Peter and Cornelius in Acts 10–11. This turning point is significant as it “represents the decisive step forward in the spread of Christianity to the Gentiles.”⁴⁴Clinton E. Arnold, Acts, ZIBBC (Zondervan, 2019), 301. It paves the way for the church to sanction and commission Paul’s ministry to the Gentiles (11:18) and is cited by Peter in the subsequent Jerusalem Council (15:7–8). This episode is replete with sending terminology (10:5, 8, 17, 20, 22, 29, 32, 33, 36; 11:11, 13). Of equal significance is the identities of those who are sent and do the sending. Cornelius, a Gentile centurion, is a central character in the pericope and used by God to send (πέμπω, ἀποστέλλω) two servants and a soldier to Peter (10:5, 20). The episode ends with Peter’s conclusion that the word of God that was sent to Israel (ἀποστέλλω), and the Spirit of God that was sent on Pentecost, are also for the Gentiles (10:36; 11:15–18).

The third turning point is the Jerusalem Council in Acts 15:1–35. Even though Acts 10–11 was a seminal turning point in the Gentile mission, the Jerusalem Council was instrumental in consolidating the turn by garnering the agreement of the whole church.⁴⁵Polhill, Acts, 320. Thus, Acts 15:1–35 is central in the development of the narrative, which will subsequently shift to be dominated by Paul and his mission.⁴⁶Polhill, Acts, 320; Johnson, The Acts of the Apostles, 286; Bruce, The Book of Acts, 282. Sending language is frequently used here (15:3, 22, 25, 27, 30, 33 [x2]) to describe the sending of Paul and various envoys.

2. Tracing the Sending Verbal Thread

This section traces the sending verbal thread in detail through Luke and Acts. The approach follows the footsteps of Robert C. Tannehill by focusing on a particular thread in the narrative to uncover what Luke appears to be highlighting through the literary design of the work.⁴⁷Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts.

2.1. God Sends Messengers to Prepare the Way in the Power of the Spirit (Luke 1:5–3:22; 7:27)

God sends the angel (ἄγγελος) Gabriel to Zechariah and Mary to bring the good news of the births of John and Jesus (1:5–25, 26–37). John will be filled with the Spirit and sent as a messenger (ἄγγελος) to prepare the way (ὁδός) of the Lord and guide people to the way (ὁδός) of peace (1:76, 79; 3:4; 7:27). God’s Spirit (πνεῦμα) is prominent in these chapters (1:15, 17, 35, 41, 67, 80; 2:25, 26, 27; 3:16, 22).

2.2. Jesus Revealed as the One sent in the Power of the Spirit (Luke 3:23–4:44)

After John the Baptist’s imprisonment, Jesus is anointed by the Spirit (3:22; 4:1, 14, 18) and reveals himself as the fulfilment of the Isaianic promise, the one upon whom God’s Spirit rests and who has been sent by God to proclaim the good news of the kingdom of God and set captives free (4:16–21, 43). The mission to the Gentiles, hinted at in Luke 2:32, is reiterated by Jesus as he cites the ministries of Elijah and Elisha, who had also been sent to the Gentiles (4:24–30).⁴⁸Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 33.

2.3. Jesus Prepares His Apostles to Be Sent Out (Luke 6:12–49)

Jesus chooses twelve individuals from his disciples to be his apostles (ἀπόστολος) (Luke 6:13).⁴⁹James Edwards observes that the call of the twelve apostles by Jesus in Luke 6:13 is paralleled by the account of Paul and the twelve disciples in Acts 19:7. See James R. Edwards, “Parallels and Patterns between Luke and Acts,” BBR 27 (2017): 485–501. Luke places significantly more emphasis on ἀπόστολος than the other gospel writers, using the term six times in Luke and twenty-nine times in Acts as compared to Matthew and Mark, who use it only once and twice respectively.⁵⁰Given the prominence of the apostles in the establishment of the early church, “it is remarkable that the noun ἀπόστολος appears rarely in the other three gospels.” NIDNTTE, s.v. “ἀποστέλλω.” John Nolland suggests that Luke gives greater prominence to ἀπόστολος in his gospel to prepare his readers for the central role the apostles will play in Acts:

Important for Luke is the role of the Twelve in connecting together in their own persons the period of the ministry of Jesus and the time of the church, and for this he uses the term ἀπόστολος, “apostle.” The apostles serve to guarantee the transfer into the life of the church of the full significance of the ministry of Jesus, and for this Jesus himself made provision: the apostles are his fully authorized representatives in this task.⁵¹Nolland, Luke 1–9:20, 269.

Luke’s emphasis on ἀπόστολος is also significant because of the term’s lexical and thematic coherence with Luke’s sending verbal thread that we have observed so far. Edwards observes that the derivation of ἀπόστολος from the cognate ἀποστέλλω signifies that the sending nature of God is instituted in the mission of the Twelve.⁵²Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 186. Furthermore, as Brian Devries observes, Jesus’s keynote sermon in Luke 4:18 has already positioned Jesus as God’s apostle, thus connecting the ministry of the apostles with his own.⁵³Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 51.

Having selected the apostles in Luke 6:13, Luke 6:17–49 describes Jesus preparing them to be sent out. While Matthew places the account of Jesus choosing the apostles after the Sermon on the Mount (Matt 10:1), Luke places the choosing of the apostles before the Sermon on the Plain, thus positioning Luke 6:17–49 as Jesus’s preparation of his apostles to be sent out in Luke 9:1–17. As will be shown in the next section, Jesus’s teaching in Luke 6:12–49 on how to respond to and endure inevitable suffering and persecution bears close correspondence with Luke 9:1–17.

2.4. Jesus Sends out His Apostles on the Way (Luke 9:1–17)

After calling and preparing his apostles, Jesus sends them out with power and authority to proclaim the kingdom of God and heal (Luke 9:1–2). Having spent much time teaching them the importance of hearing the word of God (6:49; 8:4–21), Jesus commissions them to proclaim the word of God (9:2, 6). Luke constructs Luke 9:1–17 to explicitly connect the apostles’ ministry with the ministries of Jesus and the prophets.⁵⁴Green, The Gospel of Luke, 359; Tannehill, The Narrative Unity of Luke-Acts,1:215; Johnson, Luke, 17. The combination of power (δύναμις) and authority (ἐξουσία) that Jesus gives the Twelve in Luke 9:1 echoes the start of Jesus’s ministry in Luke 4:36, while the combination of proclamation (κηρύσσω) and healing (ἰάομαι) in Luke 9:2 parallels Jesus’s ministry in Luke 9:11 (also see 3:3; 4:18–19; 5:17; 6:18; and 8:1). These terms also foreshadow the future empowerment of the Spirit for the apostles to preach and heal in Acts.⁵⁵Acts 1:8; 3:12; 4:7, 33; 6:8; 8:5, 10, 13, 19; 9:20, 34; 10:38, 42; 19:11; 20:25; 28:8, 27, 31.

The mission for which Jesus sends out his apostles in Luke 9:1–17 bears significant parallels with his preparation of his apostles in Luke 6:12–49. Darrell Bock describes Luke 9:1–6 as a fulfilment of Luke 6:12–16, “depict[ing] the expansion of ministry to those who will be Jesus’ witnesses in the Book of Acts.”⁵⁶Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, 809. The table below summarizes the other parallels between the passages:

Theme	Luke 6:12–49	Luke 9:1–17
Hunger and poverty57Notably, while Matthew refers to the poor in spirit and those who hunger and thirst for righteousness (Matt 5:3–6), Luke’s description of the poor and hungry coheres more closely with Luke 9:1–17.	6:20–21, 24–25, 29	9:3 (cf 3:11)
Rejection	6:21–23	9:5
Suffering and persecution	6:27–36	9:7–9
Future satisfaction (χορτάζω) through divine provision	6:20–21	9:0–17 (cf 22:35)
Reference to the prophets	6:2, 26	9:8

 

2.5. Jesus Prepares and Sends His Followers on the Way (Luke 9:18–10:37)

After the apostles return, Jesus teaches his followers what it means to follow him as he prepares to make his way to the cross from Luke 9:51. The language of following (ἀκολουθέω) appears more frequently in these verses than anywhere else in Luke-Acts. Luke 9:51 marks a significant turning point in the narrative as Jesus sets his face to go to Jerusalem.⁵⁸Green, The Gospel of Luke, 403; Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 295. Jesus sends people out to prepare his way in Luke 9:51 and Luke 10:1. The sending of messengers to prepare the way is consistent with the pattern established throughout the Lukan narrative with the sending of the angel Gabriel, John the Baptist, and the apostles, sharing numerous lexical and thematic parallels.⁵⁹When comparing the messengers in 9:52 with John the Baptist, Green also observes the parallel misconstrual of Jesus’s mission as one of bringing the fire of judgment (3:9, 17; 7:19–20). Green, The Gospel of Luke, 402.

	Angel Gabriel	John the Baptist	Apostles	Messengers	Seventy-two
Messenger (ἄγγελος)	1:19, 26	7:27		9:52
Sent (ἀποστέλλω)	1:19, 26	7:27	9:1	9:52	10:1
Ahead of Jesus (πρὸ προσώπου)		7:27		9:52	10:1
To proclaim the good news of the kingdom of God (εὐαγγελίζω/κηρύσσω)	1:19	3:3	9:2, 6		10:9
To prepare the way (ἑτοιμάζω)		1:17, 76		9:52

 

While Matthew and Mark also describe the sending out of the Twelve (Matt 10:5 and Mark 3:14), Luke is unique in providing accounts of the angel Gabriel, messengers, and the seventy-two. These additional accounts are significant. As mentioned above, Luke is unique in the emphasis and prominence he accords the apostles. Edwards notes that the apostles retain a position of eminence in the Lukan narrative, as demonstrated in Luke 9:1, where the power and authority granted to the apostles are not repeated in the commissioning of the messengers or the seventy-two.⁶⁰Edwards, The Gospel According to Luke, 356. However, Luke is also unique in recording the missions of the messengers and seventy-two. By positioning the messengers and seventy-two as extending the apostle’s prior mission, Luke marks them out “as full participants in the divine mission, as John was.”⁶¹Green, The Gospel of Luke, 404.

The pattern of extending the mission from the apostles to a wider group will be repeated in Acts. While the earlier chapters of Acts focus on the activity of the apostles, in the later chapters the people sent by God on divine mission increase in both number and diversity. These people include the scattered church (Acts 8:1), Philip (Acts 8:4), Ananias (Acts 9:17), and the two servants and a soldier are sent by God to Joppa (Acts 10:1–11:18). As Green concludes, “the appointment of the seventy-two can be understood as prefiguring universal mission in Acts.”⁶²Green, The Gospel of Luke, 412.

2.6. Jesus (the Sent One) Is Rejected, Crucified, and Resurrected (Luke 20:1–24:12)

Jesus arrives in Jerusalem, where he will eventually be crucified. Amidst escalating tension with the religious leaders, Jesus tells a parable that the religious leaders perceive to be about them (Luke 20:19). Sending is a core theme of the parable, appearing eight times in six verses (ἀποστέλλω, ἐξαποστέλλω, πέμπω, ἐκβάλλω). The tenants beat and ill-treat each of the servants that the owner of the vineyard sends to them, reflecting the prophets of God who were rejected and ill-treated by Israel (4:24; 6:23). Ultimately, the tenants kill the owner’s son when he is sent to them, reflecting Jesus who is the son sent by the Father (20:13; cf. 4:18) and rejected (ἀποδοκιμάζω; Luke 20:17; cf. 9:22 and 17:25). Thus, Luke uses the parable to pick up the sending verbal thread and provide a hermeneutical lens for the rest of the section: Jesus, the sent son of God, will be rejected and killed.

2.7. Jesus Joins Disciples on the Way (Luke 24:13–35)

The famous account of the road to Emmaus is unique to Luke’s Gospel (24:13–35). After Jesus’s resurrection, he draws near to and accompanies two disciples on the road from Jerusalem. The direction of the travel is key, just as it has been for much of Luke’s narrative so far. The way (ὁδός) of the Lord led to the cross in Jerusalem (1:76; 7:27; 9:57; 19:36; 20:21). However, the way does not end at the cross in Jerusalem as the divine mission will soon go out from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth (24:48; Acts 1:8). Saul himself will meet Jesus on the way (ὁδός) as God chose and commissioned him for the Gentile mission (Acts 9:17 and 27). Thus, Luke 24:13–35 foreshadows the divine mission to come, a mission carried out by those who will be known as belonging to the way (ὁδός; Acts 9:2). Jesus had not sent out these two disciples, but he would soon be sending all his disciples out on mission. Thus, Luke 24:13–35 provides a subtle encouragement that Jesus will not leave his followers alone to carry out the mission he sends them on.

2.8. Jesus Promises to Send the Holy Spirit (Luke 24:36–53)

The Gospel of Luke ends with echoes of its beginning. Just as Luke’s first book opened with a messenger sent (ἀποστέλλω) by God (1:19, 26), it closes with God’s promise to send (ἀποστέλλω) his Spirit to empower his disciples to become his messengers (24:49). While Zechariah’s unbelief froze his tongue (γλῶσσα) and rendered him unable to speak (1:20, 64), Luke’s sequel recounts how the Spirit empowers the disciples to preach in other tongues (γλῶσσα) and with power and authority (Acts 2:3, 11, 26; 10:46; 19:6).

2.9. The Promised Holy Spirit Is Sent and Establishes the Church in Jerusalem (Acts 1–7)

Acts begins where the Gospel of Luke ends. Following his ascension, the exalted Lord Jesus sends the promised Holy Spirit on the day of Pentecost (2:1–13, 33; cf. Luke 24:49), and Luke carefully words these early chapters to make clear that it is the Spirit that guides and empowers the apostles to establish and consolidate the early church in Jerusalem (3:12; 4:7, 31, 33; 5:3, 9, 29, 32).

2.10. God Prepares His Apostle to Be Sent out on the Way (Acts 8–12)

The section opens with the introduction of Saul and his approval of Stephen’s execution in Acts 8:1 and closes with Saul ready to be commissioned for his first missionary journey (12:25). Saul’s conversion and preparation for mission are rich with language from the sending word group. Ananias is sent (ἀποστέλλω) to Saul (9:17) and Saul is subsequently sent (ἐξαποστέλλω) to Tarsus (9:30) where he meets Barnabas. Barnabas had been sent (ἐξαποστέλλω) to Antioch (11:22) and made his way to Tarsus to look for Saul. Together they are sent (πέμπω, ἀποστέλλω) to bring relief to Judea (11:29–30) before eventually returning to Antioch to be sent out. Notably, Luke continues employing language of the “way” (ὁδός). Saul actively persecuted any belonging to the Way (ὁδός; 9:2; 22:4), is met by Jesus while on the road (ὁδός; 9:17, 27; 26:13), and subsequently describes himself as belonging to the Way (ὁδός; 24:14).⁶³Also see Acts 16:17; 18:25, 26; 19:9, 23; 24:22; 25:3.

Throughout this section, other details of the church’s expansion are interspersed with Saul’s story. While the Gentile mission does not significantly pick up until Acts 13 and 15, these details set the stage for the Gentile mission. From Acts 8:1, the church begins its expansion beyond Jerusalem to the Gentiles amidst persecution. The apostles send (ἀποστέλλω) Peter and John to Samaria (8:14) while the Lord sends Philip to cross paths with an Ethiopian eunuch (8:26). After the events of Peter’s vision and Cornelius’s conversion in Acts 10–11, James is killed and Peter is imprisoned amidst persecution from Herod. Acts 12:1–25 may be seen as foreshadowing the persecution and suffering to come for God’s servants.⁶⁴David Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles, PNTC (Eerdmans, 2009), 359. God sends (ἐξαποστέλλω) an angel (ἄγγελος) to rescue Peter from prison (12:11), and an angel subsequently strikes Herod down (12:23). These events echo Luke’s earlier narrative where messengers/angels (ἄγγελος) are sent by God (Luke 1:18, 26; 7:27; 9:52) while also foreshadowing the anguish and persecution that Paul will go through, and the angel that God will send to reassure and protect him (Acts 27:23). As Green observes, “Jesus’ way of suffering continues in Acts,”⁶⁵Edwards, “Parallels and Patterns between Luke and Acts.” and God continues to send angels to protect his envoys during trial and suffering (Luke 22:43; Acts 5:19; 7:30, 35, 38).⁶⁶Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles, 217.

2.11. God Sends out His Apostle on the Way (Acts 13–28)

Much of the gospel expansion in Acts 13–28 will be driven under Paul’s leadership and focus on his ministry.⁶⁷Huffman, The Story of Jesus Continues, 33. However, Luke is careful to repeatedly describe Paul as being sent by both God (13:4, 26; 22:21; 26:17; 28:28) and the church (13:3; 15:3, 22, 25; 17:14). While Paul carries out the mission, it is ultimately the Lord who sends, as Paul himself repeatedly reiterates (22:21; 26:17; 28:28). Notably, in the later chapters of Acts, it is not the apostles or members of the church but the Roman governor Festus who sends (πέμπω, ἀναπέμπω) Paul on to Rome (25:21, 25, 27), perhaps underscoring God’s agency in using even foreign rulers for his divine purposes.

3. Exegetical Implications and Conclusion

This paper has sought to establish a sending verbal thread in Luke-Acts. Luke consistently and systematically uses the sending word group in the characterisation of key characters and at narrative seams and key turning points to frame the events in the narrative.

Tracing the sending verbal thread has implications for our understanding of the structure of Luke-Acts. The dominant view of the underlying structure of Luke-Acts is geographically based, moving to Jerusalem in Luke’s Gospel and out from Jerusalem in Acts.⁶⁸Blomberg, Jesus and the Gospels, 160–61; Bock, Luke 1:1–9:50, 20; Bruce, The Book of Acts, 36; Peterson, The Acts of the Apostles, 26; Johnson, Luke, 14; Kenneth R Wolfe, “The Chiastic Structure of Luke-Acts and Some Implications for Worship,” SwJT 22 (1980): 60–71. The sending verbal thread complements this view through its prominence at narrative seams and characterisation of main characters, thus driving the movement of the narrative as envoys are sent to Jerusalem and then out from Jerusalem to the ends of the earth to carry out God’s divine mission.

Reading Luke-Acts in light of the sending verbal thread also has several key implications for Christian life, theology, and mission. Firstly, the thread adds to our understanding of Luke’s Trinitarian theology.⁶⁹For a more in-depth treatment, see C. Kavin Rowe, “Luke and the Trinity: An Essay in Ecclesial Biblical Theology,” SJT 56.1 (2003): 1–26; Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 7–11. All three persons of the Trinity are subjects of the sending verbs in the Lukan narrative and are used interchangeably. God sends angels (Luke 1:19, 26; Acts 12:11), Jesus (Luke 4:18, 43; 9:48; 10:16; 20:13; Acts 3:20, 26), John the Baptist (Luke 7:27), the apostles and prophets (Luke 11:49; Acts 22:21), and the Spirit (Acts 5:32). Jesus sends out the apostles, messengers, and the seventy-two (Luke 9:2, 52; 10:1; 19:29), and the Spirit (Luke 24:49). And the Spirit sends out the apostles and envoys (Acts 10:20; 13:4).

Second, the church is reminded of our divine mission from God to be sent out. As shown throughout Luke-Acts, God has and continues to use his people to send out the gospel message (Luke 9:1; 10:1; Acts 13:26).⁷⁰Huffman, The Story of Jesus Continues, 35. However, Luke is careful to root the mission in the Old Testament Scriptures (Luke 24:27, 44–49; Acts 15:16–18).⁷¹See Brian J. Tabb, After Emmaus: How the Church Fulfills the Mission of Christ (Crossway, 2021), 83–105, 135–65; Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 28. Likewise, Christians today must situate ourselves in the broader historical context of the mission we are all called to. We are not the first people to be sent out, for we are the beneficiaries of those who obeyed the call to be sent out and who in turn are part of a rich heritage of envoys sent by God, a heritage that can be traced way back to the prophets of old (Luke 11:49). The church is also reminded of the direction and purpose God has given us to be sent out and to preach the gospel (Luke 4:43; Acts 26:16).⁷²Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 45, 51. Consequently, a church that fails to heed our God-given direction and purpose has reneged on its divine mission.⁷³David J. Bosch, Transforming Mission: Paradigm Shifts in Theology of Mission (Orbis Books, 2011), 392–98. Just as Ananias’s obedience when Christ sent him to Paul was central to Paul’s conversion, so our obedience to God’s call to send us is important in the furtherance of God’s divine mission. Churches must therefore be more intentional and even systematic in discipling and preparing our members for mission.⁷⁴Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 143–45.

Third, the verbal thread underscores the role of the church in sending its members out. In individualistic cultures today, too often we unilaterally decide for ourselves what we are gifted for and where we feel called to go in the name of the divine mission. Luke-Acts teaches that we cannot (and should not) carry out the divine mission on our own. In Luke’s gospel, Jesus intentionally raised up, trained up, sent out, and followed up with the disciples he sent out on mission. Similarly, in Acts, the church was regularly involved in sending people out (Acts 8:14; 9:30; 13:3; 15:3, 33). Acts 13:3–4 is particularly salient as it shows the church to be the agent through whom God commissions Saul and Barnabas for mission. Likewise, the church today must be actively involved in helping members process a call from God to be sent out. However, the church’s role must go further than simply sending people out. When Jesus’s disciples returned, they would tell him what they had done, and Jesus would continue to teach and help them process what they had learnt (Luke 9:10; 10:17). Likewise, churches need to be intentional in following up with those we have sent out by checking in on how they are doing, helping them process their experience, ensuring they have opportunities to rest and grow, and holding them accountable to the purpose of their mission. Likewise those sent also need to be proactive in maintaining connections with their sending churches and supporters.⁷⁵David R. Dunaetz, “A Missionary’s Relationship to Sending Churches: Communal and Exchange Dimensions,” in Churches on Mission: God’s Grace Abounding to the Nations, ed. Geoffrey D. Hartt, Christopher R. Little, and John Wang (William Carey Library, 2017), 303–23. Given the complexity and number of different missions organizations and parachurches, part of the intentionality of sending churches should involve investing in strong relationships with other organizations in the missions network.⁷⁶Devries, You Will Be My Witnesses, 140–42.

Lastly, Luke-Acts teaches us to expect difficulty and persecution when being sent out.⁷⁷Brian J. Tabb, “Salvation, Spreading, and Suffering: God’s Unfolding Plan in Luke-Acts,” JETS 58 (2015): 43–61. As explained in the previous section on Luke 6:12–49 and 9:1–17, given the “necessity” (δεῖ) of suffering for the proclamation of the gospel message (Luke 9:22; 17:25; 24:7, 26, 44–46; Acts 9:16, 17:3),⁷⁸In addressing questions on the Old Testament basis for a suffering Messiah in Luke 24:44–46, Joshua Jipp helpfully highlights Luke’s use of the Psalms “as the autobiographical speech of the suffering Davidic Messiah, now climactically embodied by Jesus himself.” Joshua W Jipp, “Luke’s Scriptural Suffering Messiah: A Search for Precedent, a Search for Identity,” CBQ 72 (2010): 255–74. Jesus intentionally and extensively prepared his envoys for suffering and opposition before he sent them out (Luke 6:22; 10:3; 11:49; 13:34; 20:10–13). Scott Cunningham posits that not only does Luke’s Gospel provide details of persecution, the church in Luke’s time was aware of Christians in the past who had been persecuted and were themselves experiencing persecution.⁷⁹Scott Cunningham, Through Many Tribulations: The Theology of Persecution in Luke-Acts, JSNTSup 142 (: Sheffield Academic Press, 1997), 328. Cunningham explains that the theology of persecution in Luke-Acts positions persecution as an indispensable part of the divine mission, as it is part of God’s plan for his people, and legitimizes Luke’s community as being on God’s side.⁸⁰Cunningham, Through Many Tribulations, 335; Brian J. Tabb, Suffering in Ancient Worldview: Luke, Seneca, and 4 Maccabees in Dialogue, LNTS 569 (Bloomsbury, 2017), 171–73. Therefore, disciples of Jesus today should continue to expect suffering and persecution in the name of God’s mission, because the way of the cross continues to be the way of suffering and persecution. However, as Luke reminds and reassures us, God does not send us out on our own. He sends us out in the power of his Spirit and the promise of his presence, provision, and future reward (Luke 6:20–23; 22:35).

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