The message to the Laodiceans in the book of Revelation is often remembered for its strong criticism.¹I prefer the term “message” rather than the conventional “letter,” since Revelation’s messages do not contain a single “formal feature typically found in letters of that day.” Jeffrey A. D. Weima, The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation: A Commentary and Guide (Baker Academic, 2021), 2. However, it is also, paradoxically, the message that most powerfully emphasizes the love of Christ. Rebuke and love go together in this message. This apparent contradiction—harsh rebuke intertwined with profound expressions of affection (Rev 3:19)—raises a crucial question: Why does this message juxtapose such stark criticism with expressions of love? What is the background to this kind of language?

The book of Revelation is seldom thought of as wisdom discourse.²The Jewish wisdom tradition is often associated with three main features: (1) the use of wisdom forms (e.g., macarisms and proverbs); (2) wisdom themes (e.g., how to cultivate character and how to gain wisdom); and (3) an emphasis on creation. Richard P. Belcher Jr, Finding Favour in the Sight of God: A Theology of Wisdom Literature, NSBT 46 (IVP Academic, 2018), 8–10. Wisdom literature centers on acquiring wisdom and offering guidance for personal growth. However, Revelation is rich in language typical of wisdom literature. It employs literary forms such as macarisms (1:3; 14:13; 16:15; 19:9; 20:6; 22:7; 22:14), proverbs (3:19; 13:10; 22:11), and vice lists (9:21; 21:8; 22:15). The idea that wisdom belongs to Christ and to God is foregrounded (5:12; 7:12), but so is the need for wisdom among all followers of Christ—a wisdom that enables discernment of the way of Christ versus the way of the beast (13:18; 17:9). The reader is urged to have ears to hear (Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22), a hallmark of the Jewish wisdom tradition that emphasizes the capacity to listen well (Prov 4:20; 15:31; 20:12; Job 12:11; 34:3). The language of wisdom informs Revelation’s christology, ethics, and soteriology. I have elsewhere explored the use of wisdom themes and forms in the book of Revelation.³Joel MacInnes, Wisdom Traditions in the Book of Revelation: A Literary and Theological Study, LNTS (Bloomsbury, forthcoming). A preliminary finding from my earlier study is that the message to Laodicea contains an unusually high concentration of wisdom language compared with the other seven messages.

This article aims to further explore the wisdom-related issues mentioned in that message. I will first survey wisdom allusions and wisdom forms in Revelation. When this is accomplished, I will explore wisdom concerns and themes in the message. I will then explore the significance of wisdom in the context of Laodicea and the Lycus Valley. Finally, I will discuss how these findings relate to the other seven messages within Revelation.

1. Allusions to Wisdom Literature

Revelation 3:14–22 contains two, possibly three, allusions to wisdom literature. The first allusion appears in the Christological introduction, where Christ is presented as “the beginning of creation” (ἡ ἀρχὴ τῆς κτίσεως; Rev 3:14).⁴The phrase may be translated as “the originator of God’s creation” (CSB) or “the ruler of creation” (NIV). Brian J. Tabb notes that ”elsewhere in Revelation archē clearly means ‘beginning’ (contrasted with telos), while other terms such as archōn (1:5) and basileus (19:16) indicate Jesus’ kingship.” Tabb, All Things New: Revelation as Canonical Capstone, NSBT 48(Apollos, 2019), 63. G. K. Beale has argued that the phrase refers to the new creation, in light of Rev 1:5. Beale, John’s Use of the Old Testament in Revelation, JSNTSup 166(Sheffield Academic Press, 1998), 277–292. The notion of a new creation remains possible even if the phrase refers to the wisdom of God (as will be argued in this article); Christ is the beginning not only of the first creation but of the new creation. As numerous scholars have observed, this phrase likely alludes to the personified Wisdom found in Proverbs 8:22 (LXX: κύριος ἔκτισέν με ἀρχὴν ὁδῶν αὐτοῦ).⁵E.g., Ian Boxall, Christ in the Book of Revelation (Paulist, 2021), 41; James D. G. Dunn, Christology in the Making: An Inquiry into the Origins of the Doctrine of the Incarnation, 2nd ed. (SCM, 1989), 247; Mitchell Glenn Reddish, Revelation, SHBC (Smyth & Helwys, 2001), 81. This allusion is highly probable for several reasons.⁶MacInnes, Wisdom Traditions in the Book of Revelation. Let us restrict ourselves to four. First, both texts make use of words and concepts such as “beginning” and “creation.” If the text alludes to the OT, Proverbs 8:22 provides the closest parallel. Second, the closest parallel in Jewish literature is the Targum to Proverbs 8:22, which reads: “God created me [Wisdom] at the beginning of his creation.” Third, the closest parallel within the NT is Colossians 1:15, where Christ is described as “the firstborn of all creation” (πρωτότοκος πάσης κτίσεως).⁷All English translations are from the NRSV unless otherwise indicated. Many scholars believe that the phrase in Colossians 1:15 alludes to Wisdom.⁸Jeffrey S. Lamp, “Wisdom in Col 1:15–20: Contribution and Significance,” JETS 41 (1998): 45–53. On wisdom thought in Colossians, see more below. What is particularly intriguing with this is the close geographical proximity between Laodicea and Colossae, especially in light of Paul’s instruction to the Colossians to exchange letters with the Laodiceans (4:16). We will examine this connection between the Christian communities of Colossae and Laodicea below. Fourth, many Jewish texts associate ἀρχή with wisdom (e.g., Sir 24:3–9; Wis 9:9), and the term is sometimes used as a shorthand for Wisdom.⁹James L. Kugel, Traditions of the Bible: A Guide to the Bible as it Was at the Start of the Common Era (Harvard University Press, 1998), 46. Within the matrix of Jewish thought, ἀρχή is deeply associated with wisdom. Taken together, these factors strongly suggest an allusion to Proverbs 8:22.

The second allusion to wisdom literature in the message to the Laodiceans appears in Revelation 3:19, where it is stated that Christ reproves and disciplines those whom he loves. This is clearly an allusion to, and a condensed version of, Proverbs 3:11–12:¹⁰Craig S. Keener, Revelation, NIVAC (Zondervan, 2000), 161; Robert H. Mounce, The Book of Revelation, revised ed., NICNT (Eerdmans, 1998), 112–13; Grant R. Osborne, Revelation, BECNT (Baker Academic, 2002), 19.

My child, do not despise the Lord’s discipline or be weary of his reproof, for the Lord reproves the one he loves, as a father the son in whom he delights.

David Aune helpfully notes the following: “The proverbial saying involves the application of the common theme in wisdom literature of educative discipline, in which the necessity of disciplining or chastening one’s children, motivated by love and concern for their ultimate well-being … is applied to the relationship between God and his people.”¹¹David E. Aune, Revelation 1–5, WBC 52A (Word, 1997), 260. Emphasis original. Aune further notes that the function of discipline in wisdom literature is “educative, designed to correct, cultivate character, and inculcate wisdom (13:24; 19:18, 25; 22:15; 23:13–14; 29:15, 17).”¹²Christopher B. Ansberry, Proverbs, ZECNT (Zondervan, 2024), 186. In Revelation, Christ stands in the place of YHWH and is correcting the Laodiceans so that they might cultivate a character that is fitting for them as disciples of Jesus.

A third potential allusion to wisdom literature appears in Revelation 3:20, where Christ presents himself as one who knocks on the Laodiceans’ door. The passage probably alludes to Song of Songs 5:2.¹³G. K. Beale, The Book of Revelation: A Commentary on the Greek Text, NIGTC (Eerdmans, 1999), 308; Osborne, Revelation, 212. However, there is disagreement over whether Song of Songs falls under the category of wisdom literature. It is love poetry. However, it is concerned with “the nitty-gritty of life” when it comes to questions about love.¹⁴Tremper Longman III, Song of Songs, NICOT (Eerdmans, 2001), 49. If we count Song of Songs as wisdom literature, there are three allusions to wisdom literature in the book of Revelation.

However, allusions are not the only evidence of the influence of wisdom literature. The message includes the use of various wisdom forms.

2. Wisdom Forms

One characteristic of wisdom literature is that it is a sort of macro-genre that incorporates a multitude of wisdom forms, such as proverbs, macarisms, and riddles.¹⁵John J. Collins, “Wisdom Reconsidered in Light of the Scrolls,” DSD 4 (1997): 265–266. The message to the Laodiceans includes three wisdom forms.

We have already discussed the use of Proverbs 3:11–12 in Revelation 3:19. Revelation thus incorporates a well-known proverb. This proverb, which emphasizes the importance of discipline as an act of love, was widely used in both Jewish and Christian contexts (Job 5:17–18; Heb 12:6; Philo, Prelim. Studies 177; Pss. Sol 10:1–3; 1 Clem 56:4).

The message also employs the rhetorical device known as diatribe, which is not a strictly defined literary form but rather a mode of exhortation. The diatribe deploys imputed speech to address potential objections. Revelation 3:17 could be considered a diatribe:

For you say, “I am rich, I have prospered, and I need nothing.” You do not realize that you are wretched, pitiable, poor, blind, and naked.

In diatribes, the author often responds to an opponent’s objection (Epictetus, Diatr. 4.9.5–6). Similarly, Jesus responds to the Laodiceans’ self-assessment of their condition (Rev 3:17b–19). Here, Christ imagines what the Laodiceans are saying. Through this diatribe, Christ reveals the Laodiceans’ true condition. It is an apocalyptic diatribe. It is revelatory. It is very similar to Epictetus’s diatribe, where he challenges the Epicurean philosophy of pleasure.¹⁶It is noteworthy that Epictetus was from Hierapolis, a city very close to Laodicea. In his diatribe, a Roman bailiff responds to Epictetus’ notion of submitting pleasure to duty, stating, “But I am rich and need nothing” (ἐγὼ πλούσιός εἰμι καὶ οὐδενός χρεία). This language closely parallels Revelation 3:17: “I am rich, I have prospered, and I need nothing” (πλούσιός εἰμι καὶ πεπλούτηκα καὶ οὐδὲν χρείαν ἔχω).¹⁷This could also be read as an allusion to Hosea 12:8: “Ephraim has said, ‘Ah, I am rich; I have gained wealth for myself; in all of my gain no offense has been found in me that would be sin.’” See Beale, Revelation, 304. Epictetus’s diatribe offers a closer parallel, since it contains both a declaration of wealth and the assertion that the subject is not in need of anything. My argument, however, is not that Revelation alludes to this saying, but that it makes use of a similar genre. Weima argues against an allusion to Hos 12:8, and argues that the phrase echoes a conventional or proverbial saying of the rich. Weima, The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation, 243. This striking similarity could suggest a shared genre.

Finally, the message concludes with a wisdom admonition. At the end of the message, and of all of the messages in Revelation, the reader is admonished to have ears to hear.

Let anyone who has an ear listen to what the Spirit is saying to the churches. (Rev 3:22)

This should be understood as a wisdom admonition. The call to listen is a frequent feature of wisdom literature, particularly in books like Proverbs, where the wise listen, discern, and obey, while the fool rejects wisdom and instruction (Prov 1:5; 12:15; 18:13; 19:20; 25:12). In Matthew 7:24, Jesus identifies the wise person (φρόνιμος) as one who hears (ἀκούει) his words. The call to hear in Revelation probably alludes to the Jesus tradition in the Gospels, where Jesus urges, “If you have ears to hear, then hear!” (Mark 4:9, see also 4:23; Matt 11:15; 13:9, 43; Luke 8:8; 14:35). Many scholars have noted that this Jesus saying should be understood as a wisdom saying.¹⁸Raymond C. Van Leeuwen, “Proverbs,” in The New Interpreter’s Bible, ed. Leander E. Keck, (Abingdon, 1997), 5:174. The call to have ears to hear is an invitation to hear and discern well. It is an invitation to wisdom.

Wisdom language is a key feature of the message to the Laodiceans, which portrays Jesus as a wisdom teacher, perhaps a Solomonic figure, offering instruction and discipline to those whom he loves.

3. Wisdom Themes

Given that Jesus presents himself as a wisdom teacher who disciplines and instructs his people, it is important to recognize that his corrections often address wisdom-related issues, specifically, three common symptoms of the foolish.

First, Jesus warns against self-sufficiency. The danger is evident in the Laodiceans’ claim, according to Revelation, that they are rich, prosperous, and in need of nothing (3:17). The Laodiceans’ claim likely reflects the self-image of the citizens of the prosperous city.¹⁹On the material prosperity in Laodicea and its bearing on this passage, see Ulrich Huttner, Early Christianity in the Lycus Valley, AJEC 85 (Brill, 2013), 158–65. Craig R. Koester has raised questions regarding the extent to which the message alludes to specific local circumstances within the city of Laodicea. Koester, “The Message to Laodicea and the Problem of Its Local Context: A Study of the Imagery in Rev 3:14–22,” NTS 49 (2003): 407–24. While he might be correct concerning the water supply (see below), as Ulrich Huttner notes, the combination of the importance of prosperity, gold, textiles, and eye salve, where there are credible allusions, makes his argument unlikely. Huttner, Early Christianity, 159 n. 79. See also Paul McKechnie, Christianizing Asia Minor: Conversion, Communities, and Social Change in the Pre-Constantinian Era (Cambridge University Press, 2019), 33. Following a severe earthquake in 60 CE, the city famously refused to accept any assistance from the Romans (Tacitus, Ann. 14.27; see also Sib. Or. 4.137–139). In Christ’s diagnosis, this posture is evidence of the Laodiceans’ foolishness. They had become “spiritually self-sufficient and saw no need of Christ’s aid.”²⁰Colin J. Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches of Asia in Their Local Setting (Eerdmans, 1986), 195. See also Weima, The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation, 241–246.

Self-sufficiency is dangerous according to wisdom literature. In Proverbs 30:8–9, Agur asks the Lord to give him neither riches nor poverty, since poverty can lead to theft and the possibility of profaning God, and riches can lead to denying the Lord. Agur notes that riches can lead to a self-sufficient posture that forgets one’s utter dependency on God.²¹Katherine J. Dell, “Didactic Intertextuality: Proverbial Wisdom as Illustrated in Ruth,” in Reading Proverbs Intertextually, ed. Katherine J. Dell and Will Kynes, LHBOTS 629 (T&T Clark, 2019), 106; Lindsay Wilson, Proverbs, TOTC (InterVarsity Press, 2018), 308. This is a condition reminiscent of the Laodiceans’. In Sirach 5:1, Ben Sira specifically warns against the posture of relying on one’s wealth and declaring, “I am self-sufficient” (Αὐτάρκη μοί ἐστιν).²²Mark D. Mathews notes the similarities between Revelation 3:17 and Sirach 5:1, particularly their use of imputed speech. Mathews, Riches, Poverty, and the Faithful: Perspectives on Wealth in the Second Temple Period and the Apocalypse of John, SNTSMS 154(Cambridge University Press, 2013), 72. Both the Laodiceans and the proud in Ben Sira boast of their self-sufficiency, particularly in relation to their accumulated wealth. Central to the folly’s disposition is “the reliance on one’s own quest for human autonomy, the reliance on one’s own resources and the failure to acknowledge that true knowledge is derivative from God’s—the sin of the garden of Eden.”²³J. Davies, “Folly,” in Dictionary of the Old Testament: Wisdom, Poetry & Writings, ed. Tremper Longman and Peter Enns(IVP Academic, 2008), 224. Unlike the wise, the fool, in wisdom literature, “is self-sufficient and does not heed counsel ([Prov] 12:15).”²⁴Bruce K. Waltke, The Book of Proverbs: Chapters 1–15, NICOT(Eerdmans, 2004), 113. Richard J. Clifford translates Proverbs 1:32b as “the self-sufficiency of fools will destroy them.” Clifford, Wisdom Literature (Abingdon, 1998), 79. They need ears to hear with.

The self-sufficient Laodiceans are depicted as lukewarm. Christ warns the Laodiceans that because they are “lukewarm, and neither cold nor hot,” he is about to vomit them out of his mouth (Rev 3:16). Many scholars believe this alludes to the Laodiceans’ water supply.²⁵Hemer, The Letters to the Seven Churches, 186–91; Ian Paul, Revelation, TNTC 20 (IVP Academic, 2018), 112–15; M. J. S. Rudwick and E. M. B. Green, “The Laodicean Lukewarmness,” ExpTim 69 (1958): 176–78; Weima, The Sermons to the Seven Churches of Revelation, 236–41. It is often asserted that Laodicea’s water quality was inferior to that of the surrounding cities. Colossae had cold, refreshing water, while Hierapolis was known for its warm and healing waters. It is sometimes claimed that Laodicea received its water from the warm springs of Hierapolis, but at the time the water reached Laodicea, it was lukewarm.²⁶G. R. Beasley-Murray, Revelation, NCB (Eerdmans, 1978), 105; Brian K. Blount, Revelation: A Commentary, NTL (Westminster John Knox Press, 2009), 82; J. Massyngbaerde Ford, Revelation: Introduction, Translation, and Commentary, AB(Yale University Press, 2008), 418–19; Scot McKnight with Cody Matchett, Revelation for the Rest of Us: A Prophetic Call to Follow Jesus as a Dissident Disciple (Zondervan Reflective, 2023), 180–81; Rudwick and E. Green, “The Laodicean Lukewarmness,” 176–78. However, recent archaeological and epigraphic evidence does not support the idea that the water in Laodicea was of poor quality.²⁷Allan H. Cadwallader and James R. Harrison, “Perspectives on the Lycus Valley: An Inscriptional, Archeological, Numismatic and Iconographic Approach,” in The First Urban Churches 5: Colossae, Hierapolis, and Laodicea, ed. James R. Harrison and L. L. Welborn, WGRWSup 16(SBL Press, 2019), 32–36; Buist M. Fanning, Revelation, ZECNT (Zondervan, 2020), 186–87; Huttner, Early Christianity, 156–58; Craig R. Koester, “The Message to Laodicea and the Problem of Its Local Context,” 407–24; Thomas R. Schreiner, Revelation, BECNT (Baker Academic, 2023), 204–5; Mark Wilson, “Did the Laodiceans Drink Lukewarm Water? A Hydrological Inquiry into the Temperature Metaphor of Revelation 3:15–16,” Lycus Journal 8 (2023): 72–87. The claim that the water came from Hierapolis (or other warm springs) has been shown to be incorrect. Laodicea did not get its water from Hierapolis; rather, the main water supply came from the south (while Hierapolis is located northeast of Laodicea).²⁸Unal Ozis, “Water Works of Ancient Civilizations,” in Water Resources of Turkey, ed. Nilgun B. Harmancioglu and Dogan Altinbilek(Springer, 2020), 23–25. Another weakness of this view is that Christ drinks the water. Giuseppe Scardozzi notes that the “thermal springs inside the urban area are not suitable for drinking, being characterized by high concentrations of dissolved salts.” Scardozzi, The Territory of Hierapolis in Phrygia (Ege, 2020), 89. The imagery of Christ spitting out the water is difficult to reconcile with the idea that it refers to the healing springs of Hierapolis. Fanning, Revelation, 187. Contrary to the claims of many scholars, Laodicea had multiple water sources, and there’s no compelling reason to believe that the water quality was poor.²⁹Archeological excavations by the Turkish archeological team led by Celal Şimşek have been important. Much of the data that was found in 2003 has not been published in English, which has led to many biblical scholars not knowing of it. See Celal Şimşek, “Urban Planning of Laodikeia on the Lykos in the Light of New Evidence,” in Landscape and History in the Lykos Valley: Laodikeia and Hierapolis in Phrygia, ed. Celal Şimşek and Francesco D’andria(Cambridge Scholars, 2017), 1–51. See also Mark Wilson, “Did the Laodiceans Drink Lukewarm Water?” 72–87. In fact, some sources claim the opposite, that the water in Laodicea was good and even wondrous (Strabo, Geographica 13.4.14; cf. Sibylline Oracles 3:470–474).

Regardless of the condition of the water in Laodicea, hot or cold beverages were generally preferred to lukewarm ones.³⁰A more traditional interpretation, which has largely fallen out of favor among scholars, suggests the lukewarmness refers to the Laodiceans’ spiritual indifference. For this view, see Philip Edgcumbe Hughes, The Book of the Revelation: A Commentary, PNTC(Eerdmans, 1990), 65; Edmondo F. Lupieri, A Commentary on the Apocalypse of John (Eerdmans, 1999), 129. Neither of these works demonstrates any awareness of alternative interpretations. Cf. Huttner, Early Christianity, 157–58. A major weakness of this interpretation is that Revelation presents both cold and warm as equally positive qualities. While warm water could be soothing, cold water was refreshing. Both were considered positive, whereas lukewarm beverages were often viewed negatively (cf. Seneca, On Anger, 2.25.1). Lukewarm water was of no use, just as the Laodiceans’ deeds bore no fruit. In some cases, lukewarm water was even used to induce vomiting (Athenaeus, Deipnosophistae 3.123a; Life of Aesop 2–3). The Laodiceans’ lukewarmness (vv. 15–16) relates to their self-sufficiency (v. 17). What makes Christ nauseous is their complacent self-sufficiency.³¹D. A. Carson, “The Church in an Affluent Society (Rev 3.14–22),” Banner of Truth 185 (1979): 16–21. This self-reliance has led them to become lukewarm, rendering the congregation “no longer distinguishable from its context concerning the way its members conduct themselves.”³²Markus Öhler, “Meals and Banqueting Culture in the Apocalypse of John,” in T&T Clark Handbook to Early Christian Meals in the Greco-Roman World, ed. Soham Al-Suadi & Peter-Ben Smit (T&T Clark, 2019), 318. The language of vomiting (3:16) “recalls the prophetic threat to a defiled Israel of being vomited out of the promised land.”³³Jon K. Newton, A Pentecostal Commentary on Revelation, POTNTC (Wipf & Stock, 2021), 113. See also Timothy L. Decker, “‘Live Long in the Land’: The Covenant Character of Old Testament Allusions in the Message to Laodicea (Revelation 3:14–22),” Neot 48 (2014): 417–46; Mark Wilson, “Neither Cold nor Hot but Lukewarm: Rethinking the Temperature Metaphor in Revelation 3:15-16,” TynBul 76 (2025): 20–21. In Leviticus 18:24–25, 28; 20:22, God warns the unfaithful that participation in idolatry will result in their expulsion from the land. The threat is extended to the Laodiceans: Christ will bring judgment if they do not repent.³⁴Mark Wilson argues that the metaphor refers to Greco-Roman bathing culture, where “the most important rooms in the bath, the tepidarium had a minimal function that served as a lukewarm space for bathers moving between the hot and cold rooms.” Wilson, “Neither Cold nor Hot,” 26. However, the imagery of vomiting in Revelation 3:16 is best understood as describing a liquid that Christ vomits out. Although I agree with Wilson that the imagery likely alludes to Leviticus, the primary metaphor remains: Christ vomits the Laodiceans out of his mouth because they are lukewarm. The metaphor inherently implies the presence of something lukewarm in Christ’s mouth. Furthermore, it is unclear, based on Wilson’s argument, why cold and warm would be preferable to lukewarm.

Second, Christ confronts the Laodiceans’ pride. Pride and arrogance are consistently identified in wisdom literature as hallmarks of the foolish and evidence of a lack of wisdom (e.g., Prov 8:13; 15:25; 16:19; Job 33:17; 40:11–2; Sir 10:14; see also Isa 2:12; 9:8).³⁵D. Kellermann, “גָּאָה,” TDOT 2:349. Proverbs 16:5 states, “All those who are arrogant are an abomination to the Lord; be assured, they will not go unpunished.” In Sirach, to depart from God is the beginning of pride (10:12). “Mockery and abuse issue from the proud, but vengeance lies in wait for them like a lion” (27:28). In the NT, in Colossians 2:18, in a letter written to a congregation related to the congregation in Laodicea, Paul warns of being “puffed up without cause by a human way of thinking.”³⁶Clinton E. Arnold, Colossians, WBC (Zondervan Academic, 2025), 573–74. Wealth and pride are frequently associated with each other in wisdom literature (Prov 30:8–9); and wisdom is prized above riches (Wis 7:9). This strong connection between foolishness, pride, and wealth is particularly evident in James 1:2–27. However, as stated in Proverbs 11:28, it is those who trust in their riches that will fall (see also 13:3; 14:16; 16:5, 18). Their wealth is built on a false security. This is true of the Laodiceans. Their wealth has led them to believe they are self-sufficient and in need of nothing.

However, the Laodiceans’ self-image is, in reality, a self-deception. One of the hallmarks of the foolish in wisdom literature is self-deceit (e.g., Prov 12:15; 14:12; 26:12).³⁷Joseph K. Pak, What the Bible Says about the Dangers of Self-Deception: An Exegetical Approach (Wipf & Stock, 2024), 28–35. Warnings of self-deception are prevalent in the letter of James (e.g., 1:6, 26), a text that is universally acknowledged to be indebted to wisdom literature. See Dan G. McCartney, “Self-Deception in James,” CTR 8.2 (2011): 31–43. In Proverbs, self-deception is often described with the phrase “in his own eyes” (12:15; 16:2; 21:2; 26:5, 12, 16; 28:11).³⁸Ronald E. Murphy notes that “any conclusion that relies on ‘one’s own eyes’ can easily be a case of self-deception.” Murphy, Proverbs, WBC 22 (Nelson, 1998), 91. The eyes, in Proverbs, are “depicted as potential sources of self-deceit.”³⁹Ansberry, Proverbs, 439. In 26:12, the one who thinks of himself as wise is worse than a fool. The wise, in contrast to the fool, know what they do not know (15:14). “Wise advice overcomes self-deception.”⁴⁰Daniel J. Estes, Handbook on the Wisdom Books and Psalms (Baker Academic, 2005), 233. Agur describes the proud, in 30:12–13, as “those who are pure in their own eyes, yet are not cleansed of their filthiness. There are those—how lofty are their eyes, how high their eyelids lift!” Jesus, in Revelation, exposes the Laodiceans’ self-deception. While they think they are pure and perceptive, similar to the self-deception described in Proverbs 30, Christ declares them “wretched, pitiable, poor, blind, and naked” (Rev 3:17).

The Laodiceans are commanded to be earnest and to repent (3:19). They need not only ears to hear but also eyes to see. They are spiritually poor and blind. The only path out of this deception is to “buy” Christ’s gold, white garments, and eye salve. James L. Resseguie observes, “In other words, deception is so powerful that only Christ can provide the remedy to this situation.”⁴¹James L. Resseguie, Revelation Unsealed: A Narrative Critical Approach to John’s Apocalypse (Brill, 1998), 173. Jesus “counsels” (συμβουλεύω) them to buy from him, a word that “carries the nuance of providing wise advice to someone facing a critical decision (e.g., Exod 18:19; 1 Kgs 1:12; John 18:14; cf. 1 Clem 58:2).”⁴²Fanning, Revelation, 188 n. 28. As a sage, he is urging them to choose a wise path that leads to life. The language of “buying” alludes to Isaiah 55:1–3, a text likely influenced by wisdom traditions and also alluded to in Revelation 21:6 and 22:17.⁴³MacInnes, Wisdom Traditions in the Book of Revelation. In Isaiah 55:1, all who thirst are invited to come and buy “wine and milk without money and without price.” The Laodiceans need to depend upon Christ. They need riches which cannot be bought with money. Christ is the source of wisdom, a wisdom that enables the spiritually blind to see. To all who acknowledge their thirst and need for Christ, Christ will “give water as a gift from the spring of the water of life” (21:6; cf. Jas 1:5). Jamie Davies writes:

There is a call to humility here for the church in Laodicea to recognise its spiritual poverty, to acknowledge its sin of spiritual self-sufficiency, and to turn in utter dependency to Christ who alone is sufficient. Buried in the logic of this devastating rebuke, however, is the message’s only positive note. Jesus’s stern discipline of the Laodicean church is a demonstration of his enduring fatherly love for them (cf. Deut 8.5; Prov 13.24; Eph 6.4), intended to reveal the truth and bring about repentance and change.⁴⁴Jamie Davies, Reading Revelation: A Literary and Theological Commentary (Smyth & Helways, 2023), 128.

4. Wisdom and Counter-Wisdom in Lycus Valley

Why is Laodicea singled out? Why is there a particular focus on the Laodiceans’ need for wisdom? Perhaps because they lack wisdom the most. It is widely acknowledged that the message to Laodicea is the harshest of the seven.⁴⁵Although the message to Sardis is also severe, it does, at least, concede the existence of some individuals who have maintained their fidelity to Christ (Rev 3:4). It is because they are the most foolish. This could explain why Christ is described as the “Amen” and “the faithful and true witness,” emphasizing his role as a reliable source of wisdom and truth (Rev 3:14).⁴⁶This does not detract from the fact that “the Amen” is a likely allusion to Isaiah 65:16. G. K. Beale, John’s Use of the Old Testament in Revelation, 273–94.

It is interesting to compare the message to Laodicea in Revelation with Paul’s letter to the Colossians. Colossae and Laodicea were neighboring cities (separated by only 11 miles), both situated in the Lycus Valley of Phrygia.⁴⁷On early Christianity in the Lycus Valley, see Lukas Bormann, “Early Christians in the Lycus Valley,” in Early Christian Encounters with Town and Countryside: Essays on the Urban and Rural Worlds of Early Christianity ed. Markus Tiwald and Jürgen K. Zangenberg (Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2021), 211–31; F. F. Bruce, “Jews and Christians in the Lycus Valley,” BSac 141 (1984): 3–15; Huttner, Early Christianity; Alastair Kirklan, “The Beginnings of Christianity in the Lycus Valley: An Exercise in Historical Reconstruction,” Neot 29 (1995): 109–24; McKechnie, Christianizing Asia Minor, 18–67; Paul Trebilco, “Christians in the Lycus Valley: the view from Ephesus and from Western Asia Minor,” in Colossae in Space and Time: Linking to an Ancient City, ed. Alan H. Cadwallader and Michael Trainor(Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2011), 180–211. Colossians 4:16 suggests a close relationship between the congregations in Colossae and Laodicea, as they were instructed to exchange letters.⁴⁸On the significance of the exchange, see Benjamin P. Laird, The Pauline Corpus in Early Christianity: Its Formation, Publication, and Circulation (Hendrickson, 2022), 113–16. Some scholars have suggested that the “letter from Laodicea” (τὴν ἐκ Λαοδικείας) was written by the Laodiceans, not Paul. John Calvin, Commentary on Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians, trans. John Pringle (Christian Classics Ethereal Library, 1851), 204–5; Charles P. Anderson, “Who Wrote ‘The Epistle from Laodicea’?” JBL 85 (1966): 436–40. While it is theoretically and grammatically possible, it is, however, most likely written by Paul. Why else does he know about it? If it is a letter from the Laodiceans to Paul, how does he know that they have a copy? Since the letters are in parallelism with each other in verse 16, it makes sense that Paul wrote both. See Arnold, Colossians, 783–85; Gie Vleugels and J. Christi Coetzee, “De brief uit Laodicea: Identificatie van dit aanbevolen geschrift (Kol. 4:16),” In die Skriflig 33.1 (1999): 71–71. The great majority of scholars accept that it is claimed that Paul wrote it. Markus Barth and Helmut Blanke, Colossians: A New Translation with Introduction and Commentary, AB 34B (Doubleday, 1994), 487–88; James D. G. Dunn, The Epistles to the Colossians and to Philemon, NIGTC (Eerdmans, 1996), 286; Alan J. Thompson, Colossians and Philemon, TNTC 12(InterVarsity Press, 2022), 200–201; N. T. Wright, Colossians and Philemon, TNTC 12 (Eerdmans, 1986), 160. The term “reading aloud” (ἀνάγνωσις) may have been a technical term for the public reading of sacred texts. See Tomas Bokedal, The Formation and Significance of the Christian Biblical Canon: A Study in Text, Ritual and Interpretation (T&T Clark, 2014) 266–67; Vleugels and Coetzee, “De brief uit Laodicea,” 72–73. The close relationship is probably implied by Paul’s omission of Hierapolis in 2:1 and 4:16. The omission is unexpected, given that Hierapolis, a city also in the Lycus Valley, is mentioned in 4:13 and is even closer geographically to Colossae (6 miles apart) than Colossae and Laodicea. The omission of Hierapolis in 2:1 and 4:16 “lies probably in the fact that the ties between the two communities in Colossae and Laodicea were close and those between Colossae and Hierapolis more distant.”⁴⁹Barth and Blanke, Colossians, 272. It is possible that Paul views the congregations in Colossae and Laodicea as a unit, since he only greets them in Colossians 4:15.⁵⁰Anderson, “Who Wrote ‘The Epistle from Laodicea’?” 437.

This is a crucial point. In the letter to the Colossians, Paul combats a false philosophy—a counter wisdom. This false philosophy has an “appearance of wisdom” (2:23) and leads to arrogance (2:18).⁵¹Ulrich Huttner notes: “The author’s repeated appeal to ‘wisdom’ (σοφία) here at the end of the epistle should clearly be interpreted as an attack on the ‘philosophy’ being debated in Colossae; in this passage [Col 4:2–6], this wisdom can simply be identified with Jesus Christ.” Huttner, Early Christianity, 147. In the letter, Paul emphasizes that Christ is the true source of wisdom (2:3; see also 1:15–20). There is a comprehensiveness to the wisdom in Christ, for in Christ are hidden “all the treasures of wisdom and knowledge” (2:3). The point is that one should not look beyond Christ for wisdom.⁵²Kevin McFadden, Hidden with Christ in God: A Theology of Colossians and Philemon, New Testament Theology (Crossway, 2023), 57–58. No letter within the Pauline corpus emphasizes the need for wisdom as Colossians does (1:9; 1:29; 2:3; 3:16; 4:5).⁵³The only possible exception is 1 Corinthians. By contrast, Colossians places a far greater emphasis on the relationship between Christ and wisdom. Moreover, wisdom occupies a larger portion of Colossians’s content than of 1 Corinthians. McFadden notes that the “theme of wisdom and knowledge runs throughout Paul’s letter to the Colossians.” McFadden, Hidden with Christ in God, 56. Concerning wisdom in Colossians, see Matthew E. Gordley, New Testament Christological Hymns: Exploring Texts, Contexts, and Significance (IVP Academic, 2018), 125–32. Concerning wisdom in Paul, see James D. G. Dunn, The Theology of Paul the Apostle (Eerdmans, 1998), 267–80. Some scholars, however, are skeptical of interpreting Colossians 1:15–20 through the lens of wisdom traditions. Gordon D. Fee, Pauline Christology: An Exegetical-Theological Study (Hendrickson, 2007), 595–625. Paul obviously senses a need to emphasize where to find true and reliable wisdom and prays that the Colossians might be filled with it (1:9). Huttner suggests that Paul’s appeal to walk in wisdom and to always speak graciously in Colossians 4:5–6 is a missionary strategy. He notes that the Lycus Valley has a favorable condition for rhetorical specialists and was associated with thinkers such as Poleman of Laodicea, Antipater of Hierapolis, and Epictetus.⁵⁴Huttner, Early Christianity, 147.

The exchange of letters between the congregations in Colossae and Laodicea suggests that the false teaching had spread beyond Colossae and influenced the Christians in Laodicea as well.⁵⁵G. K. Beale, Colossians and Philemon, BECNT (Baker Academic, 2019), 361; Eduard Schweitzer, The Letter to the Colossians: A Commentary, trans. Andrew Chester(Augsburg, 1976), 242. Anderson observes that the close proximity of the Colossians and Laodiceans suggests they shared “in a common religious and theological environment.” Anderson, “Who Wrote ‘The Epistle from Laodicea’?” 437. In Colossians 2:1, Paul similarly “contends” and “struggles” on behalf of the Colossians and the Laodiceans. This highlights “the close alignment between Paul and Epaphras in gospel ministry goals and passion.” Thompson, Colossians, 197. Beale notes that ἀγών combined with ἀγωνίζομαι (1:29) usually refers to the struggle against opposition (e.g., 1 Tim 6:12). Beale, Colossians, 154. This suggests that Christian leaders, evident in Colossians and Revelation, felt a need to emphasize the importance of seeking genuine wisdom. This likely reflects a specific trend among Christians in this region to embrace ways of thinking that some Christian leaders found problematic. Colin Hemer reaches a similar conclusion, writing: “Rev 3.14 and Col. 1.15, 18 appear to combat a form of speculative heresy known from Colossians to have been prevalent in the Lycus valley. This relationship is accordingly situational as well as probably literary.”⁵⁶Hemer, Letters, 18.

It is possible that this is the reason why the Christians in Hierapolis are not commanded to read the letters to Colossians and Laodicea; they might not have been struggling with the same challenges and temptations as these churches. Nevertheless, they might still be susceptible to the temptations, given that Paul notes Epaphras has “worked hard” for the three congregations in the Lycus Valley (Col 4:13).⁵⁷Arnold writes: ”But one troubling implication of this passage is the very real possibility that the churches in Laodicea and Hierapolis are in danger of succumbing to the same threat that is facing the Colossian church through the factional teachers.” Arnold, Colossians, 779.

The remedy to these false philosophies lies in emphasizing Christ as the true source of wisdom. Christ exposes the foolish self-deceptions and philosophies that were infiltrating the Christian communities in the Lycus Valley. What these Christians desperately need is the genuine wisdom that unmasks false wisdom and arrogance. Christ is the embodiment of true wisdom and the sole source of true knowledge.

5. Wisdom in Laodicea and the Seven Messages in Revelation

While wisdom is particularly important for the message to the Laodiceans in Revelation, there is a sense in which wisdom is an important element for all seven messages. This is partly evident in the fact that all the messages conclude with the exhortation to have ears to hear. As we noted briefly above, this exhortation is a proverb that has its roots in the wisdom tradition, and especially Jesus’s appropriation of it. All messages call their readers to hear well—that is, to discern wisely (Rev 2:7, 11, 17, 29; 3:6, 13, 22).

In this sense, all the messages share wisdom elements, as they all exhort readers to discern wisely. Furthermore, when examining the content of the messages, one finds topics central to wisdom traditions. In the 1960s, the French scholar Joseph Comblin noted parallels between the seven messages and wisdom literature.⁵⁸Comblin, Le Christ dans l’Apocalypse (Desclée, 1976), 120–28. He noted thematic parallels such as (1) attention to good works, (2) the denunciation of evil works, (3) an appeal to conversion, (4) testing, and (5) rewards. These thematic parallels open up the possibility of reading all the messages through a wisdom lens.⁵⁹Cf. J. De Waal Dryden, A Hermeneutic of Wisdom: Recovering the Formative Agency of Scripture (Baker Academic, 2018), 263. The messages address wisdom questions, such as righteous conduct, the pursuit of a godly character, and the practice of wise discernment. What the Christians in Asia Minor are really in need of in the midst of challenging days is wisdom. The messages expose folly and guide the Christians toward true wisdom: Jesus Christ. In this sense, the seven messages in Revelation can be understood as revealed wisdom, calling the congregations of Asia Minor to live in accordance with the true wisdom found only in Christ.

6. Conclusions

The message to the Laodiceans includes strong language—language of rebuke and language of love. The language reflects the author’s conviction that the Laodiceans are on the dangerous path of folly. The antidote of this foolishness is the same antidote Paul prescribed in the message to the Colossians: a focus on the supremacy of Christ and Christ as the true source and supplier of wisdom.

The extensive use of wisdom language in the message to the Laodiceans suggests that the text can be understood as a form of wisdom discourse. The message presents Christ as the embodiment of wisdom, revealing and exposing the Laodiceans’ folly. He disciplines them out of love, and he knocks on their door, seeking to have them hear his voice so that they might repent and enjoy fellowship with him. By exposing the folly, the text is inviting the reader to cultivate a humble character that is in accordance with the way of Jesus.

It is possible that the Christians at Lycus Valley were particularly vulnerable to a philosophy that fostered self-sufficiency and blinded them to their need for Christ. However, Christ’s correction is presented as an act of love, inviting the Laodiceans to embrace the wisdom of God.

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